Essay/Term paper: Lebanon

Essay, term paper, research paper:  History Essays

Lebanon

Lebanon, a nation that once proudly called itself the Switzerland of the Middle
East, is today a country in name only. Its government controls little more than
half of the nation's capital, Beirut. Its once-vibrant economy is a shambles.
And its society is fragmented - so fragmented, some believe, that it may be
impossible to re-create a unified state responsive to the needs of all its
varied peoples.

Lebanon lies on the eastern shore of the Mediterranea n Sea, in that part of
southwestern Asia known as the Middle East. Because of its location - at the
crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa - Lebanon has been the center of commerce
and trade for thousands of years. It has also been on the route of numerous
conquering armies.

With an area of 4,015 square miles, Lebanon is one of the smallest countries in
the Middle East. It is smaller than every state in the United States except
Delaware, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Lebanon is sandwiched between Syria in
the north and east and Israel in the south. The maximum distance from the
nation's northern border to the southern one is only 130 miles. And the maximum
distance from the Mediterranean Sea to the Lebanon-Syria border is 50 miles. In
the south, along the border with Israel, Lebanon's eastern border is only 20
miles from the sea.

Although a tiny land, Lebanon boasts a great diversity in its landscape which
makes it one of the most picturesque countries in the world. The coast line is
br oken by many bays and inlets of varying size. At some points, the mountains
wade silently right into the sea - then climb suddenly tier on tier away from
the Mediterranean to the sky. Because of the limitation of flat agricultural
land, all but the steepest hillsides have been patiently and neatly terraced and
planted with garlands of twisted grapevines. The mountains lend a great variety
of hues - pale pink, rosy red, forest green or deep purple - to the landscape.
Depending on the time of day, they never appear the same twice, and from time to
time whipped white clouds hide all except their snow-capped peaks. Even on the
darkest night, the lights of the villages perched on the mountains shine in
small clusters as a reminder of their presence. On c loser view, the mountains
become a jumble of giant gorges, many of them over a thousand feet deep, with
rocky cliffs, steep ravines and awesome valleys. These unassailable bastions
have offered a secure hideaway, throughout history, for hermits and persecuted
groups seeking refuge.

Lebanon has four distinct geographical regions: a narrow - but fertile - coastal
plain; two roughly parallel mountain ranges that run the full length of the
country - the Lebanon, which rises in the west to an alpine hei ght of 11,000
feet while the eastern range, the anti-Lebanon, is crowned magestically by the
snow-capped Mount Hermon at 9,232 feet. The two chains of mountains shelter
between them a well-cultivated plateau extending seventy miles in length and
fifteen miles in width. This tableland is called the Bekaa. This is a fertile
strip of land 110 miles long and six to ten miles wide. Zahle, the third largest
city in the country, is in the valley. The country's two most important rivers,
the Litani and the Orontes, rise in the northern Bekaa near Baalbek, a city that
dates to Roman times. The Litani flows southwest through the Bekaa Valley and
then empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre. Its waters are used for
irrigation, so it becomes a mere tr ickle by the time it gets to the sea. The
Orontes rises not far from the Litani, but it flows northward between the two
mountain ranges, wending its way into Syria. Beyond the Bekaa and the anti-
Lebanon mountains, the Syrian desert only stretches east f or about 800 miles to
the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This geography has been a
determining factor for millenia in keeping Lebanon turned toward the West.

The landscape cannot be described without mentioning the most celebrated tree o
f Lebanon, the cedar. Called by the Lebanese "Cedar of the Lord," this famed
tree retains somewhat of a sacred aura this day. It has become the symbol of
Lebanon and appears in the center of the flag, on the coins, and often on
postage stamps. Since an cient times the cedar constituted a valuable export
which provided King Solomon with timber for the construction of his Temple, the
Phoenicians with wood for their seafaring galleys , the Egyptians with lumber
for their palaces. Unhappily only a few grov es of these stately trees have
survived the ax of the builder, the seeker of fuel, or the hunger of goats.
Cedars generally grow on the highest mountain tops so it is not surprising to
find an ancient grove of 450 trees nestled under the highest peak. Th is grove,
the only remaining large one, may be seen as small dark specks on the bare face
of the mountain side from a distance of many miles. A few of the existing trees
may be 1,000 years old, and it is estimated that twenty of them have grown for
more than 400 years. The largest measure about twelve feet in circumference,
eighty feet in height and their branches spread an unbelievable 100 feet.

The olive, another tree closely associated with Lebanon, is extensively
cultivated, and old gnarled oli ve groves cover many of the lower hills and
valleys. For centuries olives have been a staple in the diet while their oil has
taken the place of butter among the peasants who still firmly believe in the
medicinal benefits of warm olive oil applied to stra ins, sprains and earaches.
The diversity of soil and the elevation produce a great variety of other trees
including oaks, pines, junipers, firs, cyprus, sycamore, fig, banana, acacia and
date palm. Orange, lemon, apple and other fruit trees have been ra ised
commercially in recent years. Besides supplying the local market with a great
variety of delicious fresh fruit, the harvest is exported to neighboring
countries and provides Lebanon with a main source of income.

The narrow plain along the Mediterranean coast is the most densely populated
part of Lebanon. Here and there the Lebanon Mountains push down to the sea, and
thus there is no coastal plain. In other spots the plain is so narrow that there
is barely enough room for a road. However, in a number of places the coastal
plain is wide enough to accommodate population centers, and it is here, between
the foothills of the mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, that two of Lebanon's
most important cities - Beirut and Tripoli- are located. Be irut - Lebanon's
capital, largest city, and major port - is located at about the midpoint of the
country's coastline. Today, much of Beirut lies in ruins. It has been a
battlefield on which the contending forces of have warred to see who could cause
the greatest destruction. But before 1975, when the civil war erupted, Beirut
was the nation's cultural and commercial heart and on of the most beautiful and
prosperous cities in the Middle East. Lebanon's second largest city, Tripoli, is
also on the c oast, some 40 miles north of Beirut. Because most of the people in
this city are Sunni Moslems, it had, until 1983, escaped the destruction brought
to Beirut by the Moslem- Christian fighting. But in late 1983, warring factions
of the Palestine Liberati on Organization fought their battles in and around
Tripoli. Hundreds of Lebanese were killed, buildings were destroyed, and oil-
storage tanks were set ablaze. A large part of Tripoli's population fled the
battle area, but returned in December 1983 after the PLO forces loyal to Yasir
Arafat were evacuated.

Other important cities on the coastal plain are Juniye, Sidon, and Tyre. Sidon
and Tyre are south of Beirut and have been occupied by Israeli troops since the
Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982.

In 1984, the population was estimated at 3,480,000 Lebanese (these are estimated
because no poll has been officially taken since 1932). Almost all of these
people, whether they are Christian or Moslem, are Arabs, and Lebanon is an Arab
country. Mo st of the people can speak French or English or both, but Arabic is
the national language. However, the national unity that usually comes from a
common language and heritage has eluded the Lebanese people. In many ways, the
country is less a nation than a collection of fuedal- like baronies based on
religious lines. Each religious community has its own leaders and its own
fighting force, or militia. It is reminiscent of China during the early years of
the twentieth century, when that nation had a weak central goverment and was
ruled by various warlords scattered throughout the country, each seeking
political and economic dominance.

The Moslems, who now constitute more than half the population, are divided into
three major sects: the Shiites, the S unnis, and the Druse. The Christians
include the Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Orthodox and Catholic
Armenians, and Protestants. But neither the Christians nor the Moslems are truly
unified; throughout their history Moslem and Christian se cts have fought for
political and economic gain.

The Moslems, who in 1932 were in the minority, now make up 56 percent of the
population in Lebanon. The Shiites, the poorest of the Moslem sects, number
about 1 million. They are concentrated in West Beirut and in the city's southern
suburbs, as well as in southern Lebanon in and around Baalbek in the Bekaa
Valley.

The Sunnis number about 600,000 and are concentrated in West Beirut, Tripoli,
Sidon, and Akkar, in the northernmost part of the count ry. Rashid Karami, a
former Lebanese prime minister, is the leader of the Sunnis in Tripoli and the
most influential Sunni in the country. The militia, Morbitun, a force of 5,000
well-trained fighters, is stationed in West Beirut, Tripoli, and other Su nni
areas.

The Druse, a secretive Moslem sect, number about 350,000, but their influence is
greater than these numbers would indicate. The Druse live primarily in the Shuf
mountains and in other areas to the south and east of Beirut. They now have
close ties to Syria, where there is a large Druse community. The Syrians have
supplied the Druse with a large assortment of weapons, including artillery and
tanks. The Druse militia numbers about 4,000 men and has joined forces with the
Shiite militia i n and around West Beirut to battle the Christian-dominated
Lebanese army and the Christian militias.

Another major Moslem force in the country - and a constant threat to it - are
the 500,000 Palestinian refugees and the remnants of the PLO. Their le ader,
Yassir Arafat, and thousands of his troops were forced out of Beirut by the
Israelis in 1982 and out of Tripoli by Syrian-backed PLO dissidents in 1983. The
dissident PLO forces no longer recognize Arafat as their leader because of his
lack of mili tancy in the fight with Israel. The Syrians, in addition to
controlling these dissident members of the PLO, also control the 3,500-man
Palistine Liberation Army.

The Christians, who in 1932 made up a majority of the Lebanese population, are
now only about 44 percent of the population. The largest Christian sect - and
thus far the dominant one in the nation's political and economic life - are the
Maronites. They number about 580,000 and make up 38 percent of the Christian
population and 17 percent of the national population.

The Phalange party, headed by Pierre Gemayel, is the most important Maronite
political group. The Phalangist militia is the largest of the Christian militias.
It controls East Beirut, the area along the coast just north of the capital, and
some areas in southern and central Lebanon. This militia has been heavily armed
by the Israelis.

Each of these peoples has played an important role in Lebanese history. Moslems
and Christians have lived in harmony for long period s of time, but they have
frequently engaged in bitter warfare, much as we are seeing today.

For nearly a decade this hapless nation has suffered continuous civil war among
its various religious and ethnic groups. It has been invaded twice by Israel,
which now controls all of southern Lebanon, and it has been occupied by Syria,
which controls most of eastern and northern Lebanon. Nearly 500,000 Palestinians
- refugees from the Arab-Israeli wars - live in Lebanon, where they have formed
a "state with in a state." And a succession of peacekeeping forces - Arab,
United Nations, and Western - have not only failed to establish peace, but have
exacerbated the already horrific situation.

Why haven't the Lebanese people been able to put aside their sec tarian
differences to work toward a stable government that represents all of the
people? The complete answer to this question lies deep within the unique history
of Lebanon. In 1943, the year that France, which ruled Lebanon as a League of
Nations manda te, reluctantly gave the nation its independance. As independence
approached, the nation's two most populous and powerful sects, the Maronites and
the Sunnis, formulated what is known as the National Pact - an unwritten
agreement that spelled out the cou ntry's political makeup as well as its
general orientation in foreign affairs.

The National Pact allocated political power to Lebanon's religious sects on the
basis of population. The census in 1932 showed that the Christians had the
majority with j ust over 50 percent of the population. As a result, it was
agreed that the President of Lebanon would always be a Maronite Christian and
the prime minister would always be a Sunni Moslem. Other important positions
were given to other sects. The Preside nt of the Chamber of Deputies, for
example, would always be a Shiite Moslem and the defense minister would be a
Druse. In addition, the Christians were to have six seats in Parliment for every
five seats held by Moslems. This system guaranteed the Maron ite Christians
control of Lebanon.

This system worked well enough for fifteen years. From 1943 until 1958 the
nation's economy boomed and Beirut was transformed into the showcase city of the
Mediterranean. The government seemed stable enough, but th ere were problems
boiling beneath the surface and in the mid-1950s the system began to come apart.
For one thing, the Moslems, especially the poorer Shiites, had a substantially
higher birthrate than the Christians; many people believed that the Shiites had
surpassed the Maronites in population. But the Christians would not allow a new
census to be taken, for this would have meant a reallocation of the nation's
political power, with the Moslem sects gaining at the expense of the Christians.
With their hopes for political gains dampened, the Shiites became disenchanted.

Why is this once prosperous nation on the verge of total collapse? There are a
number of reasons, but the primary one is that the Lebanese people belong to at
least fifteen differe nt religious sects and their loyalty to these sects is
greater than their loyalty to a united Lebanon. Had the people's sense of
nationhood been stronger, they would not have suffered the destruction of the
past decade.